Shamanic Ceremony for a Baby Death After Many Years

Religious exercise

Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to exist a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance.^{[1] [two]} The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world for the purpose of healing, divination, or to assistance human beings in another fashion.^[1]

Beliefs and practices categorized every bit "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject area have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal beingness devoted to the written report of shamanism.

In the 20th century, non-Indigenous Westerners involved in counter-cultural movements, such equally hippies and the New Historic period created modernistic magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of various Indigenous religions, creating what has been termed neoshamanism or the neoshamanic motion.^[three] It has affected the evolution of many neopagan practices, likewise equally faced a backlash and accusations of cultural appropriation,^[4] exploitation and misrepresentation when exterior observers have tried to practice the ceremonies of, or represent, cultures to which they practice not belong.^[5]

Terminology [edit]

Etymology [edit]

The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, past the Dutch Nicolaes Witsen, 17th century. Witsen called him a "priest of the Devil" and drew clawed feet for the supposed demonic qualities.^[vi]

The Modern English discussion shamanism derives from the Russian word šamán , which itself comes from the word samān from a Tungusic language^[seven] – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the Evenki spoken past the Sym Evenki peoples,^[8] or from the Manchu language.^[9] The etymology of the discussion is sometimes connected to the Tungus root sā- , meaning "to know".^{[10] [11]} Nonetheless, Juha Janhunen questions this connectedness on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."^[12]

Mircea Eliade noted that the Sanskrit word śramaṇa, designating a wandering monastic or holy effigy, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with Buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the Tungusic word.^[xiii]

The term was adopted by Russians interacting with the ethnic peoples in Siberia. It is plant in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum.^[14] Information technology was brought to Western Europe twenty years later by the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking ethnic peoples of Siberia in his book Noord en Oost Tataryen (1692).^[15] Adam Make, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers.^[sixteen]

Anthropologist and archaeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans practical the Standard arabic term shaitan (pregnant "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples across the Ural Mountains.^[17] She suggests that shaman may take entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, then been told to Christian missionaries, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries.

A female person shaman is sometimes called a shamanka , which is not an actual Tungus term but simply shaman plus the Russian suffix -ka (for feminine nouns).^[xviii]

Definitions [edit]

There is no single agreed-upon definition for the give-and-take "shamanism" among anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests 3 shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently alter consciousness, the community regards altering consciousness as an of import ritual exercise, and the knowledge about the practice is controlled.

The English language historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were iv dissever definitions of the term which appeared to be in use:

1. The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit globe while in an altered state of consciousness."
2. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the bidding of others.
3. The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "mediums", "witch doctors", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," past claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique non used by the others. (Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to concur on what the defining technique should be.)
4. The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the ethnic religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.^[20] According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian system of shamans, the Evenk give-and-take shaman would more accurately be translated every bit "priest".^[21]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a shaman ( SHAH-men, or )^[22] is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.^{[1] [22]} The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of Due north Asia. According to ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as Negidal, Lamut, Udehe/Orochi, Nanai, Ilcha, Orok, Manchu and Ulcha, and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the significant 'shaman' likewise derives from Proto-Tungusic" and may have roots that extend back in fourth dimension at least two millennia.^[23] The term was introduced to the w after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552.

The term "shamanism" was outset practical by Western anthropologists equally outside observers of the aboriginal religion of the Turks and Mongols, equally well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions around the world, some Western anthropologists began to also utilize the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magico-religious practices plant within the indigenous religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and fifty-fifty completely unrelated parts of the Americas, equally they believed these practices to be like to 1 some other.^[24] While the term has been incorrectly applied past cultural outsiders to many indigenous spiritual practices, the words "shaman" and "shamanism" do not accurately describe the diverseness and complexity that is ethnic spirituality. Each Nation and tribe has its own mode of life, and uses terms in their ain languages.^[25]

Mircea Eliade writes, "A first definition of this circuitous phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, volition exist: shamanism = 'technique of religious ecstasy'."^[26] Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses past mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical trunk of the individual to rest and wholeness. Shamans likewise claim to enter supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans claim to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human world. The restoration of residuum is said to consequence in the elimination of the ailment.^[26]

Criticism of the term [edit]

A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the multifariousness of this concept.

The anthropologist Alice Kehoe criticizes the term "shaman" in her volume Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation.^[iv] This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, co-ordinate to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute ethnic practices. Kehoe too believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such every bit the noble savage.

Kehoe is highly disquisitional of Mircea Eliade's work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from diverse sources unsupported by more direct inquiry. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices be outside of what is defined every bit shamanism and play similar roles even in not-shamanic cultures (such as the office of chanting in rituals in Abrahamic religions) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized hands, accurately, or usefully into a global faith of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving organized religion from the Paleolithic menses.^[4]

The term has been criticized^{[ by whom? ]} for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. By Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a diverseness of different cultures and practices effectually the globe, which tin vary dramatically and may non be accurately represented past a single concept. Baton-Ray Belcourt, an writer and accolade-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying culture that is diverse, such equally Shamanism, as it is prevalent in communities around the globe and is made up of many complex components, works to muffle the complexities of the social and political violence that indigenous communities accept experienced at the hands of settlers.^[27] Belcourt argues that language used to imply "simplicity" in regards to indigenous culture, is a tool used to scoff indigenous cultures, as it views indigenous communities solely as a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves indigenous communities simply capable of simplicity and plainness.

Anthropologist Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, similar Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"^[28] or "shamanship"^[29] (a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the commencement of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more than stress on the local variations^[10] and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, just linked to the everyday life in a practical way.^[30] Following like thoughts, he also conjectures a gimmicky paradigm shift.^[28] Piers Vitebsky also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no tape of pure shamanistic societies (although their existence is not impossible).^[31] Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."^[32]

Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" every bit a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an all-encompassing commodity, has documented the office of Mongols themselves, specially "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.^[33] This procedure has too been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.^[34] Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social structure and reification of shamanism every bit a religious "other" actually began with the 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the germination of European discourse on Shamanism".^[35]

History [edit]

Shamanism is a system of religious exercise.^[36] Historically, information technology is often associated with indigenous and tribal societies, and involves conventionalities that shamans, with a connection to the otherworld, accept the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of the dead to the afterlife. The origins of Shamanism stalk from Northern Europe and parts of Northern Asia.^[37]

Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have limited the ability of indigenous peoples to practice traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination^[38] and the reclamation of dynamic traditions.^[39] Other groups have been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such as the nomadic Tuvan (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe).^[40] Tuva is one of the nearly isolated tribes in Russian federation where the fine art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated existence, allowing it to be free from the influences of other major religions.^[41]

Beliefs [edit]

In that location are many variations of shamanism throughout the earth, simply several common behavior are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by Eliade (1972)^[26] are the following:

• Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human club
• The shaman can communicate with the spirit world
• Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent
• The shaman tin treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits
• The shaman can employ trances inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and keep vision quests
• The shaman'due south spirit tin leave the body to enter the supernatural earth to search for answers
• The shaman evokes creature images every bit spirit guides, omens, and message-bearers
• The shaman can perform other varied forms of divination, scry, throw bones or runes, and sometimes foretell of future events

As Alice Kehoe^[four] notes, Eliade's conceptualization of shamans produces a universalist paradigm of ethnic cultures, which perpetuates notions of the expressionless (or dying) Indian^[42] every bit well every bit the noble barbarous.^[43]

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible globe is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which bear upon the lives of the living.^[44] Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired past malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the trunk" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.

Many shamans accept expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal handling is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing backdrop, afterwards obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and curanderos use medicine songs chosen icaros to evoke spirits. Earlier a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.^[44] The use of totemic items such as rocks with special powers and an animating spirit is common.

Such practices are presumably very ancient. Plato wrote in his Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time constitute it rewarding plenty to "listen to an oak or a stone, and so long every bit it was telling the truth".

Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known every bit brujería in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy not bad power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or appallingly equally potentially harmful to others.^[45]

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk as shamanic constitute materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Spells are ordinarily used in an attempt to protect against these dangers, and the utilize of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.

Soul and spirit concepts [edit]

Soul

Soul can by and large explicate more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:^{[46] [47] [48]}

Healing

Healing may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.^[49] It may consist of the supposed retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.^[50]

Scarcity of hunted game

Scarcity of hunted game tin be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Also that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, then that the souls of the animals practise not feel angry or injure, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they tin allow themselves to be caught and killed.^{[51] [52]}

Infertility of women

Infertility of women is thought to exist cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child^{[ citation needed ]}

Spirits

Spirits are invisible entities that just shamans can see. They are seen as persons that tin can presume a human or animal body.^[53] Some animals in their physical forms are also seen every bit spirits such as the case of the eagle, snake, jaguar, and rat.^[53] Beliefs related to spirits can explicate many different phenomena.^[54] For example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a vocaliser, can exist understood better if the whole belief organisation is examined. A person who tin can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded equally the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (eastward.g. Khanty people).^[55]

Exercise [edit]

Mostly, shamans traverse the axis mundi and enter the "spirit world" by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens or ritual performances.^{[56] [57]} The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together.

Entheogens [edit]

An entheogen ("generating the divine within")^[60] is a psychoactive substance used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.^[61] Entheogens have been used in a ritualized context, in a number of dissimilar cultures, possibly for thousands of years. Examples of substances used by some cultures as entheogens include: peyote,^[62] psilocybin and Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushrooms,^[63] uncured tobacco,^[64] cannabis,^[65] ayahuasca,^[66] Salvia divinorum,^[67] and iboga.^[68]

Entheogens also have a substantial history of commodification, peculiarly in the realm of spiritual tourism. For instance, countries such as Brazil and Peru have faced an influx of tourists since the psychedelic era starting time in the tardily 1960s, initiating what has been termed "ayahuasca tourism."^[69]

Music and songs [edit]

Just like shamanism itself,^[ten] music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate natural sounds, via onomatopoeia.^[70]

Sound mimesis in diverse cultures may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such every bit luring game in the hunt;^[71] or entertainment (Inuit throat singing).^{[71] [72]}

Initiation and learning [edit]

Shamans often claim to have been chosen through dreams or signs. Withal, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but by and large takes years.

Turner and colleagues^[73] mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crisis", a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving concrete illness or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can exist found in the case history of Chuonnasuan, who was ane of the last shamans among the Tungus peoples in Northeast People's republic of china.^[74]

The wounded healer is an archetype for a shamanic trial and journeying. This process is important to young shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This is said to happen for two reasons:

• The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman tin can venture to its depths to bring dorsum vital information for the ill and the tribe.
• The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes their own sickness, they believe that they will hold the cure to heal all that suffer.^[75]

Other practices [edit]

• Ecstatic dancing
• Icaros / medicine songs^[44]
• Vigils
• Fasting
• Mariri
• Ayahuasca ceremonies

Items used in spiritual practice [edit]

Shamans may utilise varying materials in spiritual practice in dissimilar cultures.

• Drums – The drum is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia.^{[76] [77]} The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered country of consciousness or to travel on a journey betwixt the physical and spiritual worlds. Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are more often than not constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.

Roles [edit]

Though the importance of spiritual roles in many cultures cannot be overlooked, the degree to which such roles are comparable (and even classifiable under 1 term) is questionable. In fact, scholars take argued that such universalist classifications paint indigenous societies as primitive while exemplifying the civility of Western societies.^{[79] [33]} That being said, shamans have been conceptualized every bit those who are able to gain knowledge and power to heal in the spiritual earth or dimension. Most shamans have dreams or visions that convey sure messages. Shamans may claim to accept or have acquired many spirit guides, who they believe guide and straight them in their travels in the spirit globe. These spirit guides are ever thought to be nowadays inside the shaman, although others are said to encounter them just when the shaman is in a trance. The spirit guide energizes the shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans claim to heal within the communities and the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the human being soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans too claim to cleanse excess negative energies, which are said to misfile or pollute the soul. Shamans act equally mediators in their cultures.^{[80] [81]} Shamans claim to communicate with the spirits on behalf of the customs, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they tin communicate with both living and dead to convalesce unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.

Among the Selkups, the sea duck is a spirit creature. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the h2o and are thus believed to belong to both the upper world and the world below.^[82] Amongst other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to waterfowl in general.^[83] The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed past soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower world or "earth below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to exist accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.^[84] In shamanic cultures, many animals are regarded as spirit animals.

Shamans perform a multifariousness of functions depending upon their respective cultures;^[85] healing,^{[49] [86]} leading a sacrifice,^[87] preserving traditions by storytelling and songs,^[88] fortune-telling,^[89] and acting as a psychopomp ("guide of souls").^[90] A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.^[85]

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a group, depending on the culture), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may exist either purely concrete afflictions—such every bit illness, which are claimed to be cured past gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the affliction-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed past displaying a supposedly extracted token of the affliction-spirit (displaying this, fifty-fifty if "fraudulent", is supposed to print the illness-spirit that information technology has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient'southward body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such equally persistent terror, which is likewise believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the ane translated "shaman" is usually practical to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the instance of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

In that location are distinct types of shamans who perform more than specialized functions. For example, among the Nani people, a distinct kind of shaman acts equally a psychopomp.^[91] Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit globe, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shamans.^{[92] [93]}

The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman.^[94] Despite these functions, the jardalanin is non a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into a trance.^[95]

Ecological aspect [edit]

Amid the Tucano people, a sophisticated system exists for environmental resources direction and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This organization is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may crusade illness. Every bit the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading part in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their subconscious abodes.^{[96] [97]} The Piaroa people have ecological concerns related to shamanism.^[98] Amongst the Inuit, shamans fetch the souls of game from remote places,^{[99] [100]} or soul travel to ask for game from mythological beings like the Sea Woman.^[101]

Economics [edit]

The style shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment",^{[ who? ]} and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits.^[102] An account states that the gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given by his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to utilise his souvenir and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives.^[103] These goods, however, are just "welcome addenda". They are not enough to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like any other member of the grouping, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of ayahuasca tourism in Due south America, there are practitioners in areas frequented past backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.^{[104] [102]}

Academic written report [edit]

Cognitive and evolutionary approaches [edit]

There are two major frameworks amid cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed by anthropologist Michael Winkelman, is known as the "neurotheological theory".^{[105] [106]} According to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies considering it provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and private clients. In item, the trance states induced past dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to have an "integrative" outcome on cognition, assuasive advice among mental systems that specialize in theory of mind, social intelligence, and natural history.^[107] With this cognitive integration, the shaman can better predict the movement of animals, resolve group conflicts, plan migrations, and provide other useful services.

The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-product" or "subjective" model of shamanism developed by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh.^{[1] [108] [109]} According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural engineering science that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince us that a specialist can influence important but uncontrollable outcomes.^[110] Citing piece of work on the psychology of magic and superstition, Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing affliction, controlling pelting, or attracting animals. Every bit specialists compete to help their clients control these outcomes, they bulldoze the development of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues, is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling uncertainty. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions about humanness: Practitioners use trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly get entities distinct from normal humans and thus more obviously capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee important outcomes. Influential cognitive and anthropological scientists such equally Pascal Boyer and Nicholas Humphrey accept endorsed Singh's approach,^{[111] [112]} although other researchers accept criticized Singh's dismissal of private- and group-level benefits.^[113]

David Lewis-Williams explains the origins of shamanic practice, and some of its precise forms, through aspects of human consciousness evinced in cave art and LSD experiments alike.^[114]

Ecological approaches and systems theory [edit]

Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern scientific discipline (systems theory, environmental, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear style.^[96] He likewise suggests a cooperation of modern scientific discipline and indigenous lore.^[115]

Historical origins [edit]

Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic, predating all organized religions,^{[116] [117]} and certainly equally early equally the Neolithic period.^[117] The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is at present the Czechia.^[118]

Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist Michael Witzel proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, tin be traced to the migrations of ii prehistoric populations: the "Gondwana" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "Laurasian" blazon (of circa 40,000 years ago).^[119]

In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-one-time site in State of israel that is perceived every bit one of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs autonomously and folded inward at the knee. Ten big stones were placed on the head, pelvis, and artillery. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human pes, and sure body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other creature remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic menstruum.^[120]

Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches [edit]

A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "ane who knows",^{[11] [121]} implying, among other things, that the shaman is an practiced in keeping together the multiple codes of the society, and that to be constructive, shamans must maintain a comprehensive view in their heed which gives them certainty of knowledge.^[10] Co-ordinate to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as amulets.^[121] If the shaman knows the civilisation of their community well,^{[81] [122] [123]} and acts appropriately, their audience volition know the used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker.^{[123] [124]}

In that location are also semiotic, theoretical approaches to shamanism,^{[125] [126] [127]} and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts heaven spirits for good aims past day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims past night.^[128] (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a earth-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammer arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, too this formed a cognitive map).^{[10] [129]} Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the customs, which provides a "mythological mental map".^{[130] [131]} Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept "grammar of mind".^{[131] [132]}

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics,^[133] or "ethnohermeneutics",^[129] estimation. Hoppál extended the term to include not but the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex rituals, and ceremonies performed, for instance, past shamans)".^[134] Revealing the animistic views in shamanism, but as well their relevance to the gimmicky world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms of residuum and protection.^[131]

Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements [edit]

Traditional, Indigenous shamanism is believed to be declining around the earth. Whalers who frequently collaborate with Inuit tribes are ane source of this reject in that region.^[135]

A shaman dr. of Kyzyl, 2005. Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize Tuvan shamanism:^[136] one-time authentic shamans take begun to practise once more, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.^[137]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked past their own community,^[138] or regarded their own past equally deprecated and were unwilling to talk nigh it to ethnographers.^[139]

Also personal communications of erstwhile shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly almost a deterioration process. For example, a Buryat epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:^[140] he could even compete with God, create life, steal dorsum the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,^[141] fortune-telling even for decades in the time to come, moving as fast as a bullet.^[142]

In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened past the fact the shaman is not always the simply person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood.^{[94] [95]} Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because they "adapt" to the behavior of the community,^[123] several parts of the noesis related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman, or root in their family life,^[143] thus, those are lost with their death. Too that, in many cultures, the entire traditional conventionalities organisation has become endangered (often together with a fractional or full language shift), with the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew quondam or died, many folklore memories songs, and texts were forgotten—which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the centre of the 20th century, like the Nganasan.^[144]

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.

• Variants of shamanism among Inuit peoples were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today is rarely practiced, as well as already having been in refuse amidst many groups, fifty-fifty while the first major ethnological research was being done,^[145] east.grand. amidst Polar Inuit, at the finish of the 19th century, Sagloq, the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the heaven and under the ocean died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like ventriloquism and sleight of manus.^[146]
• The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them fifty-fifty at the beginning of the 20th century,^[147] the terminal notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies were recorded on picture show in the 1970s.^[148]

Subsequently exemplifying the general pass up even in the most remote areas, in that location are revitalizations or tradition-preserving efforts equally a response. As well collecting the memories,^[149] there are also tradition-preserving^[150] and fifty-fifty revitalization efforts,^[151] led by accurate onetime shamans (for instance among the Sakha people^[152] and Tuvans).^[137]

Native Americans in the The states practise non telephone call their traditional spiritual ways "shamanism". However, according to Richard L. Allen, research and policy annotator for the Cherokee Nation, they are regularly overwhelmed with inquiries by and about fraudulent shamans, aka ("plastic medicine people").^[153] He adds, "One may assume that anyone claiming to exist a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern mean solar day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."^[154]

At that place are also neoshamanistic movements, which usually differ from traditional shamanistic practise and beliefs in pregnant ways, and oftentimes have more connectedness to the New Age communities than traditional cultures.^[155]

Regional variations [edit]

See too [edit]

• Divine madness
• Dukun
• Fashi
• Folk healer
• Folk magic
• Itako
• Neuroanthropology
• Neurotheology
• Pawang
• Plastic shaman
• Prehistoric medicine
• Reincarnation (Ho-Clamper)
• Seiðr
• Shaman King
• Soul catcher
• Spirit spouse
• Tangki
• Tlamatini
• Zduhać

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

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2. ^ Mircea Eliade; Vilmos Diószegi (May 12, 2020). "Shamanism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 20, 2020. Shamanism, religious phenomenon centred on the shaman, a person believed to achieve various powers through trance or ecstatic religious experience. Although shamans' repertoires vary from one civilisation to the adjacent, they are typically thought to have the ability to heal the sick, to communicate with the otherworld, and often to escort the souls of the dead to that otherworld.
3. ^ Gredig, Florian (2009). Finding New Cosmologies. Berlin: Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Kehoe, Alice Beck (2000). Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in disquisitional thinking. Prospect Heights, Sick.: Waveland Printing. ISBN978-1-57766-162-seven.
5. ^ Wernitznig, Dagmar, Europe'due south Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the Plastic Shaman's [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not simply willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder simply, in fact, must come to the determination that this intruder is as practiced an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman fifty-fifty out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones - while melodramatically parting from their spiritual offshoot - who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the residuum of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of whatever megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the potency of an Indian elder, they at present have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they make (quite more than) a cadet with it, then so be it.--The neocolonial credo attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."}}
6. ^ Hutton 2001. p. 32.
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8. ^ Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 1986, 194:97.
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• Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN978-963-05-8295-7. The title ways "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. Site of publisher with short clarification on the book (in Hungarian).
• Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón". In Hoppál, Mihály; Szathmári, Botond; Takács, András (eds.). Sámánok és kultúrák. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. nine–25. ISBN978-963-9450-28-viii. The chapter title ways "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".
• Hoppál, Mihály (2007b). "Is Shamanism a Folk Religion?". Shamans and Traditions (Vol. xiii). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 11–16. ISBN978-963-05-8521-seven.
• Hoppál, Mihály (2007c). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood". Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13). Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 17–26. ISBN978-963-05-8521-7.
• Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne, 1986, 194: 97–117.
• Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia . Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge Academy Printing. ISBN978-0-521-22544-i.
• Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia . Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-21952-5.
• Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, department Viii, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The netherlands: Found of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN978-ninety-04-07160-five.
• Menovščikov, G.A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". In Diószegi, Vilmos (ed.). Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
• Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok". In Csepregi, Márta (ed.). Finnugor kalauz. Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó. pp. 221–34. ISBN978-963-243-813-nine. The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means Finno-Ugric guide.
• Nattiez, Jean Jacques. Inuit Games and Songs / Chants et Jeux des Inuit. Musiques & musiciens du monde / Musics & musicians of the world. Montreal: Research Grouping in Musical Semiotics, Faculty of Music, University of Montreal. . The songs are available online, on the ethnopoetics website curated past Jerome Rothenberg.
• Noll, Richard; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Terminal Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast Prc" (PDF). 韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions). Vol. six. Seoul KR: 西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.). pp. 135–62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2020-05-28 . . It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast Mainland china.
• Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas, J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–twenty.
• Shimamura, Ippei The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Amongst the Mongol Buryats. Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.
• Singh, Manvir (2018). "The cultural evolution of shamanism". Behavioral & Encephalon Sciences. 41: e66, 1–61. doi:x.1017/S0140525X17001893. PMID 28679454. S2CID 206264885. Summary of the cultural evolutionary and cognitive foundations of shamanism; published with commentaries past 25 scholars (including anthropologists, philosophers, and psychologists).
• Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis 1000. (1995) Religious or Spiritual Trouble. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. vii, pp. 435–44
• Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán – a szó és értelme". Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó. pp. 41–45. ISBN978-963-9104-39-6. The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".
• Winkelman, Michael (2000). Shamanism: The neural ecology of consciousness and healing. Westport, CT: Bergen & Gavey. ISBN978-963-9104-39-vi. Major work on the evolutionary and psychological origins of shamanism.
• Witzel, Michael (2011). "Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and modify of consciousness" (PDF). Social Science Data. 50 (ane): 39–61. doi:10.1177/0539018410391044. S2CID 144745844.

Further reading [edit]

• Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God: Archaic Mythology. 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. ISBN 978-0-14-019443-2
• Harner, Michael, The Manner of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing, Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
• Richard de Mille, ed. The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies. Santa Barbara, California: Ross-Erikson, 1980.
• George Devereux, "Shamans equally Neurotics", American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 63, No. 5, Part ane. (October. 1961), pp. 1088–90.
• Jay Courtney Fikes, Carlos Castaneda: Academic Opportunism and the Psychedelic Sixties, Millennia Printing, Canada, 1993 ISBN 978-0-9696960-0-1
• Åke Hultkrantz (Honorary Editor in Chief): Shaman. Journal of the International Order for Shamanistic Inquiry
• Philip Jenkins, Dream Catchers: How Mainstream America Discovered Native Spirituality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-516115-one
• Alice Kehoe, Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking. 2000. London: Waveland Printing. ISBN 978-1-57766-162-vii
• David Charles Manners, In the Shadow of Crows. (contains start-hand accounts of the Nepalese jhankri tradition) Oxford: Signal Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-904955-92-4.
• Jordan D. Newspaper, The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Organized religion, Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-7914-2315-eight.
• Smith, Frederick M. (2006). The Self Possessed: Deity and Spirit Possession in South Asian Literature. Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-13748-5. pp. 195–202.
• Barbara Tedlock, Time and the Highland Maya, U. of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-8263-1358-iv
• Silvia Tomášková, Wayward Shamans: the prehistory of an idea, Academy of California Printing, 2013. ISBN 978-0-520-27532-4
• Michel Weber, « Shamanism and proto-consciousness », in René Lebrun, Julien De Vos et É. Van Quickelberghe (éds), Deus Unicus. Actes du colloque « Aux origines du monothéisme et du scepticisme religieux » organisé à Louvain-la-Neuve les vii et 8 juin 2013 par le Centre d'histoire des Religions Cardinal Julien Ries [Cardinalis Julien Ries et Pierre Bordreuil in memoriam], Turnhout, Brepols, coll. Man Religiosus série II, 14, 2015, pp. 247–60.
• Andrei Znamenski, Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Siberian Spirituality. Dordrech and Boston: Kluwer/Springer, 2003. ISBN 978-1-4020-1740-7
• Andrei Znamenski,The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and Western Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-1951-7231-7

External links [edit]

Await up shamanism in Wiktionary, the gratuitous dictionary.

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to Shamanism.

• AFECT A charitable organization protecting traditional cultures in northern Thailand
• Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast People's republic of china, by Richard Noll and Kun Shi (Internet Archive copy from
• New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans, an organization devoted to alerting seekers nearly fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation
• Shamanic Healing Rituals by Tatyana Sem, Russian Museum of Ethnography
• Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn past A. Asbjorn Jon
• Shamanism in Siberia – photographs by Standa Krupar
• Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples past Aado Lintrop, Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum
• A View from the Headwaters by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Amazonian indigenous oeoples and ecology
• Samgaldai NGO – A charitable, non-for-profit NGO for preserving Mongolian traditional Shamanic practices and rituals, operating in Mongolia.

Shamanic Ceremony for a Baby Death After Many Years

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism

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